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Leeman, R. F., & Potenza, M. N. (2013). A targeted review of the neurobiology and genetics of behavioural addictions: An emerging area of research. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 58(5), 260–273. doi:10.1177/070674371305800503.

Dalley, J. W., Everitt, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2011). Impulsivity, compulsivity, and top-down cognitive control. Neuron, 69(4), 680–694. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.01.020. Online delivery confirmation* is available on Royal Mail 2nd Class parcels. Online delivery confirmation shows you when your item has been delivered or attempted to be delivered. Allain, F., Minogianis, E. A., Roberts, D. C., & Samaha, A. N. (2015). How fast and how often: The pharmacokinetics of drug use are decisive in addiction. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Review, 56, 166–179. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.06.012. Danna, C. L., & Elmer, G. I. (2010). Disruption of conditioned reward association by typical and atypical antipsychotics. Pharmacology Biochemistry Behavior, 96(1), 40–47. doi:S0091–3057(10)00099–7 [pii] 10.1016/j.pbb.2010.04.004. Cummings, J. L. (1991). Behavioral complications of drug treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Journal of American Geriatrics Society, 39(7), 708–716.After completion of Pavlovian training, rats were divided into two behavior-matched groups (based on the PCA index from the last training session). The “paired” group underwent a reward devaluation procedure via induction of a taste aversion: exposure to the US (10% sucrose in the home cage) was paired with illness via injection of LiCl. The “unpaired” group underwent a sham devaluation procedure in which sucrose exposure was paired with vehicle injection. Both groups received equivalent sucrose exposure in the home cage, and both groups received both LiCl and vehicle injections (see Materials and Methods); but only in the “paired” group was sucrose temporally linked to illness. Saunders BT, Robinson TE (2013) Individual variation in resisting temptation: implications for addiction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 37:1955–1975. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.02.008

Rats were trained using a PCA procedure similar to those used previously ( Morrison et al., 2015; Tunstall and Kearns, 2015). Each training session began with illumination of the house light. Rats were initially trained over two sessions to retrieve sugar pellets (45 mg, Bio-Serv) from the magazine, with each session consisting of 50 rewards delivered on a variable interval schedule averaging 60 s. During the second magazine training session, rats were habituated to the recording apparatus (see below). Amato D, Milella MS, Badiani A, Nencini P (2006) Compulsive-like effects of repeated administration of quinpirole on drinking behavior in rats. Behav Brain Res 172:1–13 Phillips, R. G., & LeDoux, J. E. (1992). Differential contribution of amygdala and hippocampus to cued and contextual fear conditioning. Behavioral Neuroscience, 106(2), 274–285. Fiorillo CD, Tobler PN, Schultz W (2003) Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons. Science 299:1898–1902

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Robinson, T. E., & Flagel, S. B. (2009). Dissociating the predictive and incentive motivational properties of reward-related cues through the study of individual differences. Biological Psychiatry, 65(10), 869–873. doi:S0006–3223(08)01094–9 [pii] 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.09.006.

Paolone, G., Angelakos, C. C., Meyer, P. J., Robinson, T. E., & Sarter, M. (2013). Cholinergic control over attention in rats prone to attribute incentive salience to reward cues. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(19), 8321–8335. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0709–13.2013. Zhang, S. W., Bartsch, K., & Srinivasan, M. V. (1996). Maze learning by honeybees. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 66(3), 267–282. doi:10.1006/nlme.1996.0069.Christie, J. (1996). Spatial contiguity facilitates Pavlovian conditioning. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 3(3), 357–359. doi:10.3758/BF03210760. Saunders BT, O’Donnell EG, Aurbach EL, Robinson TE (2014) A cocaine context renews drug seeking preferentially in a subset of individuals. Neuropsychopharmacology 39:2816–2823 Desire and pleasure areas of the brain are activated by food, drugs, sex, and other pleasurable stimuli, as well as by cues linked to these stimuli. An important scientific discovery is that wanting (desire) and liking (pleasure) appear to be distinct experiences with different neural pathways. Wanting is the motivation to seek out and consume, and liking is the warm and fuzzy feeling of satisfaction. The urgent, intense, cravings of extreme wanting characteristic of addictive and compulsive behaviors may hold no pleasure whatsoever, and may even be distressing. ST is an expected and common response to cues that are associated with rewards. Even though it is “normal”, ST has been linked to other behavior and learning patterns that can interfere with training and raise welfare concerns, and a goal in training should be to minimize the incidence of ST behavior. A few of these issues are described in the following sections.

McCutcheon JE, Roitman MF (2018) Mode of sucrose delivery alters reward-related phasic dopamine signals in nucleus accumbens. ACS Chem Neurosci. Advance online publication. Retrieved August 29, 2018. doi: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00262. [ PMC free article] [ PubMed] [ Google Scholar] Thalemann, R., Wolfling, K., & Grusser, S. M. (2007). Specific cue reactivity on computer game-related cues in excessive gamers. Behavioral Neuroscience, 121(3), 614–618. doi:10.1037/0735–7044.121.3.614. Rats were trained using a Pavlovian conditioned approach procedure similar to those used by others (e.g., Tunstall and Kearns, 2015). Each training session began with the illumination of the house lights. Rats were initially trained over 2 days to retrieve rewards (drops of 10% liquid sucrose) from the receptacle in the absence of predictive stimuli. Each receptacle training session consisted of 50 rewards delivered on a variable interval schedule averaging 90 s. Koshy Cherian, A., Kucinski, A., Pitchers, K., Yegla, B., Parikh, V., Kim, Y., . . . Sarter, M. (2017). Unresponsive choline transporter as a trait neuromarker and a causal mediator of bottom-up attentional biases. Journal of Neuroscience, 37(11), 2947–2959. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3499–16.2017.Following the devaluation/sham devaluation procedure (and before the consumption test), rats were given a test session of the Pavlovian paradigm in which no rewards were given (i.e., in extinction). Importantly, rats did not experience the taste of sucrose, or the relationship between the CS and sucrose, between the devaluation procedure and the test session. Therefore, any changes in CS-evoked behavior we observed must be explained by a representational cognitive process incorporating the updated value of the US.