Kalowes, P., Messina, V. and Li, M. (2016) ‘Five-Layered Soft Silicone Foam Dressing to Prevent Pressure Ulcers in the Intensive Care Unit’, American Journal of Critical Care, 25(6), pp.108-119. Identifying knowledge gaps using a questionnaire and organising teaching to improve referrals for bronchiolitis in children The change is then implemented, and data is collected. Next, the data, including any unintended effects, is studied and the results are summarised. Finally, the results of the first change are used to inform a plan for further improvement and the cycle is repeated, gradually moving towards the aim. There should be a minimum of two PDSA cycles in the QIP. This section appraised the two quantitative papers selected for this assignment; these include Charalambus et al. (2019) which explored the knowledge and attitude of nurses in a major public hospital in Cyprus towards PU prevention. This descriptive cross-sectional study used convenient sampling to select the nurses. Harvey and Land (2017) viewed convenient sampling as a non-probability type of sampling method where participants are selected because of their easier accessibility. The participants were employed by paraplegic, ICU, orthopaedic, neurological and medical wards because of their daily interactions with patients at risk of developing PU. Data collection was done from December 2014 to February 2015, and there were 60% of the participants who returned their questionnaire giving the 102 number of nurses who participated in this study. Two separate questionnaires were used, these consist of Piper pressure knowledge text (PUKT) and a Likert scale question which allows the participants to answer the questions ranging from agree to strongly disagree thereby granting them the flexibility of answers compared to a yes or no questions. The study was approved by the ethics committee of Cyprus. Pearson test was applied for data correlation and the statistical correlation was set at P=0.05. The result of the study showed that knowledge and attitude of nurses correlated positively (Pearson R=0,223) and is statistically significant (P=0.019). This suggests that nurses have a positive attitude towards PU prevention.

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Is subjective (each person has their own perspective and each perspective counts). Recognizes the subjectivity of the experience of not only the participant but also the researcher From this question clear terms and concepts are defined to reduce the amount of results providing higher quality, relevant evidence (Parahoo, 2014), including synonyms and phrases relating to the key concepts to cover all relevant evidence (Figure 2).

There is a myriad of qualitative approaches to research. Yet, the researcher may be confronted with a question or a topic that belongs within the qualitative paradigm but does not correspond neatly with approaches that are well documented and clearly delineated. Within the literature, various terms have been used to describe research that does not fit within a traditional qualitative approach. Thorne, Kirkham, and MacDonald-Emes (1997) define “interpretive description” as a “noncategorical” qualitative research approach (p. 169). Merriam (1998) refers to this type of research as “basic or generic qualitative research” (p. 20) and Sandelowski (2000, p. 335, 2010) explores what she calls “basic or fundamental qualitative description.” Exploratory research is the umbrella term used by Brink and Wood (2001) to describe all description qualitative research and suggest it “is a Level 1 research endeavor” (p. 85), and Savin-Baden and Howell Major (2013) refer to a pragmatic qualitative approach. This interchangeable use of terms creates ambiguity and confusion in relation to qualitative description research as a methodology in its own right. Reference to “interpretive” as described by Thorne et al. (1997) can cause confusion with phenomenology, for example, and Savin-Baden and Howell Major’s (2013) use of a “pragmatic qualitative approach” might suggest that if all else fails, the researcher should adopt a pragmatic approach. The next stage is to generate ideas for changes that will result in improvement, using quality improvement tools. It is beneficial to involve other team members in these activities. Lambert V. A., Lambert C. E. (2012). Qualitative descriptive research: An acceptable design. Pacific Rim International Journal of Nursing Research, 16, 255–256. [ Google Scholar] Rylance, R., Daye, S., Chiocchi, A., Jones, A., Jones, G., Harper, A., Potter, M., Reece, C. and Caldwell, K. (2017). Do third-year mental health nursing students feel prepared to assess physical health? Mental Health Practice. 20 (10), pp. 26-30. DOI: 10.7748/mhp.2017.e1147. Lehane, E. et al. (2018) ‘Evidence-based practice education for healthcare professions: an expert view’ BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine, 24(3), pp.103-108.In quantitative studies, the data analysis varies between studies depending on the type of design used. For example, descriptive, correlative or experimental studies all vary. A descriptive study will describe the pattern of a topic related to one or more variable. 6 A correlational study examines the link (correlation) between two variables 7 and focuses on how a variable will react to a change of another variable. In experimental studies, the researchers manipulate variables looking at outcomes 8 and the sample is commonly assigned into different groups (known as randomisation) to determine the effect (causal) of a condition (independent variable) on a certain outcome. This is a common method used in clinical trials. Essay to demonstrate an understanding of research methodologies and ethical principles underpinning research. Jirojwong, S., Johnson, M. and Welch, A. (2014). Research Methods in Nursing and Midwifery: Pathways to Evidence-Based Practice. 2 nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. A literature search should be conducted to generate an overview of the guidance and evidence relating to the topic, for inclusion in the writeup. van Manen M. (1998). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. London, Ontario, Canada: The Althouse Press. [ Google Scholar]

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Carlsson, M. and Gunningberg, L. (2017) ‘Unavoidable pressure ulcers at the end of life and nurse understanding’, British Journal of Nursing, 26(20), pp.6-17. Alternatively, the quantitative papers relate to objective testing and controlled experimentation which ultimately rejects or supports a hypothesis, and these steps are said to consistently reduce bias when collecting and analysing data (Jervis and Drake, 2014). It was also shown that the hierarchy of evidence produced in this method of study is much higher than the qualitative studies as it analyses large sample sizes, and the researchers focused on the need for precise measurement, control, prediction and replicability (Savela, 2018). Therefore, adoption of the quantitative method in clinical trials helps to measure the cause and effect relationships, and the correlation between variables, and this helps clinical nurse researchers determine the most effective form of treatment or patient’s intervention (Harvey and Land, 2017). Danby S., Farrell A. (2004). Accounting for young children’s competence in educational research: New perspectives on research ethics. The Australian Educational Researcher, 31( 3), 35–49. [ Google Scholar] Peter, E. (2015) ‘The ethics in qualitative health research: special considerations’, Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 20(9), pp.2625-2630.Iliffe, S., Davies, N., Manthorpe, J., Crome, P., Ahmedzai, S., Vernooij-Dassen, M. and Engels, Y. (2016) ‘Improving palliative care in selected settings in England using quality indicators: a realist evaluation’, British Medical Council Palliative Care, 15(1), pp. 155-159. Kingdon C. (2005). Reflexivity: Not just a qualitative methodological research tool. British Journal of Midwifery, 13, 622–627. [ Google Scholar]